The Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526)
In 1192, King Prithviraj Chauhan was defeated → the Delhi Sultanate was formed. Five successive Turkic–Afghan dynasties ruled northern India: Mamluks (Slave Dynasty) → Khiljis → Tughlaqs → Sayyids → Lodis
⬆️ The Qutub Minar complex, Delhi — built during the Delhi Sultanate period
- 1192: Delhi Sultanate begins
- Ala-ud-din Khilji — huge military campaigns, repelled Mongols
- Muhammad bin Tughlaq — moved capital Delhi→Daulatabad (failed!)
- 1398: Timur attacked & devastated Delhi
- 1526: Lodis defeated by Babur → Mughal Empire begins
Territories given to nobles (iqtadars) to collect taxes → passed to Sultan's treasury. Posts were NOT hereditary. Taxes fell most heavily on peasantry.
🗺️ Map showing extent of Tughlaq and Lodi Dynasties alongside regional powers
Resistance to the Delhi Sultanate
- Narasimhadeva I (Eastern Ganga Kingdom, Odisha) — repelled Sultanate multiple times; built the magnificent Konark Sun Temple to celebrate victories
- Musunuri Nayakas — Telugu chieftains who rallied 75+ chieftains, formed a confederacy, expelled Mughals from Warangal (~1336)
- Hoysalas — built magnificent temples at Belur & Halebidu while resisting the Sultanate in the south
- Vijayanagara Empire (1336) — major power that kept South India largely free from northern control
⬆️ Hoysala temples at Belur/Halebidu — magnificent art built while resisting northern invasions
The Mughal Empire (1526–1857)
1526: Babur defeated the Lodis at the First Battle of Panipat → founded the Mughal Empire. By Akbar's time, most of the Subcontinent was unified under one ruler for the first time since the Mauryans!
- 1556: Won 2nd Battle of Panipat
- Reorganised administration (Diwan, Mir Bakhshi, etc.)
- Mansabdari system for army
- Revenue system by Todar Mal
- Religious tolerance (mostly)
- Re-imposed Jizya tax
- Ordered execution of Guru Tegh Bahadur
- 26 years fighting Marathas in Deccan
- Died without subduing the Marathas
- Empire began declining after him
- Officers (mansabdars) assigned by rank
- Each rank = specific number of soldiers, horses, elephants to maintain
- Paid via jagir (land assignment)
- Regular inspections for compliance
⬆️ Manuscript painting of Abul Fazl with Akbar's chronicles — Ain-i-Akbari
Kingdoms that Resisted the Mughals
- Founded 1336 in the Deccan
- Flourished as a great centre of art, culture & trade
- Famous ruler: Krishnadevaraya
- 1565: Destroyed at Battle of Talikota
- Resisted Mughal expansion for over 200 years!
- Used rivers, hills & forests for defence
- Expert in guerrilla warfare & boat combat
- 1671: Battle of Saraighat — Ahoms defeated Mughal army of 30,000!
- Mughals praised: "Every Ahom soldier is expert in rowing, arrows, trenches, guns & cannons"
- Preserved independence throughout Mughal era
⬆️ Saraighat War Memorial (left) • Statues depicting Ahom warriors (right)
Mewar Kingdom under Maharana Pratap fiercely resisted Mughal domination. Though forced to retreat at the Battle of Haldighati (1576), he never surrendered. The Rajputs used guerrilla warfare and the Aravalli hills to their advantage, making Mewar a symbol of resistance and honour.
The Rise of the Sikhs
15th century Punjab: Guru Nanak spread message of equality, compassion & Ik Onkār (oneness of God). As Mughal persecution grew, later Gurus responded with martial training.
Guru Arjan → Compiled Guru Granth Sahib; martyred by Jahangir
Guru Hargobind → Formed first Sikh army after Guru Arjan's martyrdom
Guru Tegh Bahadur → Stood with Kashmiri Pandits; publicly beheaded by Aurangzeb (1675)
Guru Gobind Singh → Founded the Khalsa (1699) — martial brotherhood committed to justice & equality
⬆️ Miniature painting of Guru Gobind Singh — founder of the Khalsa
Khalsa = martial brotherhood committed to justice, equality & defence of faith. Founded 1699. The Gurdwara Sis Ganj Sahib in Chandni Chowk, Delhi marks where Guru Tegh Bahadur was martyred — the Sikh Regiment salutes it every Republic Day! 🇮🇳
As the Mughal Empire declined, Sikh confederacies emerged and were united by Maharaja Ranjit Singh. He built a strong, centralised Sikh Empire spanning much of the Northwest — including parts of Kashmir — through military skill, diplomatic ability & religious tolerance. Resisted both Mughal remnants and early British expansion till the mid-19th century.
Administration & Governance
| Delhi Sultanate | Mughal Empire (Akbar) |
|---|---|
| Sultan = absolute authority | Emperor + council of ministers |
| Iqta system (land to nobles) | Mansabdari system (ranked officers) |
| Taxes: 1/5 to 1/2 of produce | Todar Mal's scientific revenue system |
| Posts sometimes hereditary | Posts by rank (mansab), NOT hereditary |
| Jizya on non-Muslims | Akbar abolished jizya; Aurangzeb re-imposed |
Economy & People's Lives
Despite political instability, India remained one of the wealthiest regions in the world — agrarian base, thriving artisans, temple-based economies & extensive trade networks.
- Mainstay of economy
- Multiple crops: rice, wheat, cotton, spices
- Irrigation systems expanded
- Peasants often over-taxed
- Exports: textiles, spices, wootz steel, gems
- Ports: Calicut, Surat, Masulipatnam, Hooghly
- Hundi system — early banking without carrying cash
- Arab, Persian & Central Asian merchants settled in Indian ports
- More than just worship centres!
- Created markets, funded trade
- Provided credit to merchants
- Built irrigation, pilgrim accommodations
Quick Summary
- Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526): 5 dynasties, political instability, destruction of temples, spread Islam; faced resistance from Eastern Ganga, Hoysalas, Vijayanagara
- Mughal Empire (1526–1857): Babur founded it; Akbar unified & administered brilliantly; Aurangzeb's intolerance led to decline
- Resistors: Vijayanagara, Ahoms (Battle of Saraighat), Rajputs (Maharana Pratap), Sikhs (Khalsa)
- Economy: India remained wealthy — agriculture + trade + temple economies + hundi banking
- Legacy: Art, architecture, music flourished; cultural synthesis happened despite political turmoil; India showed resilience